Multi-metal electrocatalytic system for methane oxidation

FIELD

[0001]Innovations are disclosed in the field of oxidative electrochemical catalysis.

BACKGROUND

[0002]For decades, natural gas lagged coal and oil as an energy source, but today its consumption is growing rapidly as countries seek to lower greenhouse gas emissions by displacing coal for heating and power generation. The recent discoveries of vast shale gas reserves in the United States and widespread use of hydraulic fracturing, has seen natural gas prices decrease and today it supplies ˜22% of the global energy need.¹ In its 2020 report, the International Energy Agency (IEA) projected global demand for natural gas to increase by 29% by 2040 and it would be the largest energy source among fossil fuels.² In addition, the main component of natural gas i.e., methane (CH₄) is a well-established and widely available feedstock to produce several important commodity chemicals such as methanol, hydrogen, ammonia, and formaldehyde. Typical valorization of CH₄ takes place with a combination of steam methane reforming and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. These are highly endothermic processes requiring high temperatures (700° C.-1100° C.), pressures (10-40 bars) and suffer from a tradeoff between conversion and selectivity. Moreover, they are highly capital-intensive processes, requiring many unit operations and centralized infrastructure, thus hindering their implementation on a small scale. Therefore, it seems of great importance to developing a low-cost sustainable method for the direct partial oxidization of CH₄ to useful chemicals and fuels under ambient conditions.

[0003]In this context, electrochemical partial oxidation of CH₄ to oxygenates such as methanol (CH₃OH) and formic acid (HCOOH) is particularly attractive. The electrochemical conversion of CH₄ under ambient conditions also offers a route to store renewable electricity addressing a major challenge of intermittency. The ability to control the potential to alter the selectivity of the reaction is another appealing factor to develop an electrochemical route for partial oxidation of CH₄ to oxygenates. Since electrochemical devices are highly modular, and because the productivity scales directly with electrode size and current, an electrochemical route can provide an efficient and cost-effective solution that can be deployed in both large-scale industries and small-scale remote applications (such as those needed in remote oil fields).

[0004]There have been attempts to develop catalysts for electrochemical CH₄ oxidation using metal/metal-oxides in various reaction conditions, however with limited success. The reported current densities or reaction rates are low (μA cm⁻² to 1 mA cm⁻²), without any analysis of the Faradaic efficiency (FE) and reaction mechanism. A major difficulty arises due to the stable non-polar tetrahedral molecular geometry of CH₄ and high C—H bond energy (ΔH_C—H=439.3 KJ mol⁻¹). Once this high activation energy for C—H bond dissociation is attained, it is difficult to control the partial oxidation to oxygenates, which are intermediate products, and avoid the terminal and more thermodynamically favourable pathway of CO₂ production.³ The competitive oxygen evolution reaction (OER) poses additional challenges to attain high selectivity towards CH₄ oxidation products. Conventional alkaline water electrolysers operate at room temperature, with the hydroxide ion (HO⁻) generally functioning as the oxidant. Nevertheless, HO⁻ has a negligible activity for protons abstraction from CH₄ at mild conditions.⁴ Attempts for electrochemical CH₄ oxidation have also been made by utilizing high-temperature oxygen-ion conducting solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs). However, due to the use of high temperature, the reported selectivity towards oxygenates is negligible.

SUMMARY

[0005]Catalytic systems are disclosed for electrochemical CH₄ oxidation to formate, including systems that function under ambient conditions. Operando spectroelectrochemistry studies reveal that the Fe^IV═O species are active sites for electrochemical CH₄ oxidation. Although electrochemical oxidation of Fe^III to Fe^IV can be achieved at high potentials (≥1.4 V versus reversible hydrogen electrode, V_RHE), high overpotentials lead to overoxidation of CH₄ to CO₂. Therefore, we demonstrate herein the use of reactive oxygen species (e.g., generated via partial electrooxidation of H₂O₂ on Ni) to mediate Fe^III oxidation to Fe^IV at lower overpotential, suppressing unwanted overoxidation. Furthermore, we reveal the key role of Cu as a co-catalyst in preventing the complete oxidation of CH₄ to CO₂ by increasing the activation energy of the intermediate step. A CuFeNi catalyst is accordingly provided that exhibits electrochemical CH₄ oxidation to formate at high current density (32 mA cm⁻²), Faradaic efficiency (42%) and liquid oxygenate selectivity (100%) using a low applied potential (0.9 V_RHE).

[0006]Methods for using electrolytic cells are accordingly provided for electrochemically oxidizing methane to formate. The methods involve providing a methane supply to an alkaline aqueous anolyte medium including hydroperoxyl anions, where the anolyte medium is in contact with an oxidation catalyst anode, where the oxidation catalyst anode includes CuFe oxide catalytic centres supported on a nickel substrate; and, supplying an anodic current to the oxidation catalyst anode in the anolyte medium, to electrolytically oxidize methane to formate in an anodic oxidation reaction.

[0007]Accordingly, one general aspect of the present methods and electrolytic cells involves the use of an anodic CuFeNi oxidation catalyst to electrochemically oxidize methane to formate, for example where the nickel substrate is a nickel foam substrate.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0008]FIG. 1 Biological examples for CH₄ hydroxylation. (A) Diiron diamond-core structure of the intermediate Q proposed in sMMO and a proposed CH₄ hydroxylation reaction via a radical rebound mechanism. Glu, glutamate amino-acid residue. (B) Heme structure of the intermediate I proposed in cytochrome P450 and a proposed CH₄ hydroxylation reaction. Cys, cysteine thiolate ligand.

[0009]FIG. 2 Electrochemical CH₄ oxidation reaction, eCH₄OR. (A) Linear sweep voltammetry in H-type cell using CuFe/NiF electrode in 1.0 M KOH with and without the addition of 50 mM H₂O₂. (B) ¹H NMR spectra after CH₄ electrolysis performed using NiF, Fe/NiF, Cu/NIF, and CuFe/NiF electrodes at a constant voltage of 1.0 V_RHE for 1 hour in 1.0 M KOH with 50 mM H₂O₂ (inset: ¹³C NMR spectrum of ¹³CH₄ electrolysis performed using the CuFe/NiF electrode at a constant voltage of 1.0 V_RHE for 1 hour in 1.0 M KOH with 50 mM H₂O₂). (C) eCH₄OR products faradaic efficiencies and corresponding current densities obtained at different applied potentials on the CuFe/NiF in 1.0 M KOH with 50 mM H₂O₂. (D) eCH₄OR products faradaic efficiencies and corresponding current densities obtained at different applied potentials on the CuFe/NiF in 1 M KOH (without the addition of H₂O₂). (E) Chronoamperometry of CuFe/NiF at 0.9 V_RHE showing the consumption of H₂O₂ after 260 min and the effect of adding the same amount of H₂O₂ in restoring the current. (F) Radar chart showing a comparison of eCH₄OR faradaic efficiency, selectivity towards the target product, liquid oxygenates production rate, applied potential, and current density against selected best reports from the literature.

[0010]FIG. 3 Structural characterization of the catalyst. (A) XRD pattern of the CuFe/NiF in comparison with standard XRD patterns. (B) and (C) Fe L_3,2-edge and Cu L_3,2-edge of the CuFe/NiF electrode, respectively. (D) HRTEM image of the CuFe/NIF electrode. (E) and (F) Core-level spectra for Fe 2p and Cu 2p_3/2 of the CuFe/NiF electrode, respectively. Black empty circles: experimental points, solid lines: fitted data.

[0011]FIG. 4 Mechanistic understanding of the eCH₄OR. (A) Schematic of the proposed reaction mechanism of CH₄ oxidation on the CuFe/NiF with the use of H₂O₂. (B) Operando spectroelectrochemical integral absorbance of CuFe/FTO at 1.4 V_RHE with and without the addition of 100 mM H₂O₂ in 1.0 M KOH (inset: integral absorbance at 2.0 V_RHE without the addition of H₂O₂). The baseline was recorded under open circuit potential (OCP) conditions.

[0012]FIG. 5 is a schematic illustration of processes disclosed herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0013]Selective partial oxidation of methane to liquid oxygenates has been a long-sought goal, due to the intrinsic chemical inertness of its C—H bonds. With the continuous reduction in renewable electricity prices, the electrochemical partial oxidation of methane is gaining momentum globally. Inspired by the catalytic sites in cytochrome P450 and soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) metalloenzymes, here we disclose a highly active multi-metal CuFeNi electrocatalyst for selective electrochemical methane oxidation reaction (eCH₄OR) to formate at room temperature. Mechanistic studies using operando spectroelectrochemistry measurements revealed the synergistic effect of nickel, iron, and copper to selectively oxidize CH₄. Specifically, the analysis revealed the presence of high valent Fe^IV as the active site for CH₄ oxidation, attained by the reactive oxygen species generated during the partial oxidation H₂O₂ at low overpotentials compared to water oxidation reaction (OER) on nickel. Furthermore, the critical role of copper in preventing the overoxidation of valuable oxygenates to CO₂ is disclosed. We achieved Faradaic efficiencies of ˜42% and liquid product selectivity of 100% at current densities of 32 mA cm⁻² using a low applied potential of 0.9 V versus reversible hydrogen electrode. The system is schematically illustrated in FIG. 5, and described in detail in the following Examples.

EXAMPLES

Electrochemical CH₄ Oxidation Reaction (eCH₄OR).

[0014]Electrochemical oxidations were performed in a 3-electrode H-type cell, in an alkaline environment (1.0 M KOH) using a hydrothermally grown CuFe oxide on nickel foam, denoted as CuFe/NiF (synthesis procedure is discussed in the Supplementary Information). FIG. 2A shows the linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) curves under a continuous purge of Ar and CH₄ in the anolyte, with and without the addition of H₂O₂. Regardless of the purge gas used, the onset potential of the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in the absence of H₂O₂ is seen at high anodic potentials (>1.5 V_RHE), triggered by the transition of β-Ni(OH)₂ to β-NiOOH as seen by the peak centred at 1.42 V_RHE. With the addition of 50 mM H₂O₂, the anodic current starts to increase at an onset potential of ˜0.8 V_RHE, i.e., at an overpotential of ˜0.107 V, as the standard oxidation potential of H₂O₂ is 0.693 V_RHE (H₂O_2(aq)→O_2(g)+2H⁺_(aq)+2e⁻). The anodic current increases gradually and at higher voltages emerges as combined oxidation current from H₂O₂ oxidation and OER. The two-step increase in current density is due to the decrease of the alkalinity at the electrode surface because of the presence of protons released during the potential sweep.⁶ This behaviour was verified when the reaction was performed under stirring conditions in which the current continuously increased. It is worth mentioning that since the pH of the electrolyte is above 9, H₂O₂ exists mainly as HOO⁻ (hydroperoxyl anion), which will be referred to interchangeably herein.

[0015]The current observed at a low potential regime (˜0.8-1.5 V_RHE) is driven mainly from the H₂O₂ oxidation on the nickel surface. This was confirmed due to the negligible oxidation current (<1 mA cm⁻²) from CuFe catalysts which were grown on titanium foam (denoted as CuFe/TiF) following the same synthesis method as the CuFe/NiF electrode. Interestingly the current density with and without (i.e., Ar purge) purging CH₄ did not change (FIG. 2A), however, upon analysing the electrolyte with 1H NMR (FIG. 2B), after 60 min of reaction under chronoamperometric conditions, indicated formate production. Chronoamperometry tests using isotopically labelled ¹³CH₄ and the ¹³C NMR analysis, as shown in the inset of FIG. 2B, further confirmed the CH₄ to be the carbon source. Following that, we carried out control experiments at the same condition using NiF, Fe/NiF and Cu/NiF as catalysts which revealed that only the CuFe/NiF catalyst was able to oxidize CH₄ to formate (FIG. 2B), indicating the synergistic effect of Ni, Fe and Cu in selective partial oxidation of CH₄ to formate. It is important to highlight that while NiF and Cu/NiF did not produce any oxidation products (formate or CO₂), the Fe/NiF catalyst produced CO₂ indicating electrochemical oxidation of CH₄ (see SI). However, unlike the CuFe/NiF catalyst, the LSV curves and chronoamperometry measurements using Fe/NIF, revealed higher current density when the purge gas of the anolyte is switched from Ar to CH₄.

[0016]We then carried out chronoamperometry tests using the CuFe/NiF electrode with the addition of 50 mM H₂O₂, at different voltages, (FIG. 2C). Irrespective of the voltage applied, formate was the only liquid product detected and O₂ was the only gas product that comes from H₂O₂ oxidation as the applied voltages were below those needed for water oxidation. Since the reaction was done in alkaline conditions, it was assumed that any CO₂ produced would be captured in the form of carbonate (CO₃²⁻). The quantification of CO₃²⁻ was performed using the total alkalinity method which revealed that the total FE for CH₄ oxidation (HCO⁻+CO₂) was very similar (˜50%) irrespective of the applied voltages. We believe this behaviour is due to the limited availability of CH₄ in the electrolyte because of its low solubility (23 mg L⁻¹ water), thereby limiting the total FE for CH₄ oxidation. With increasing voltages there was a tradeoff between current density and faradaic efficiency for HCOO⁻, decreasing from 42% at 0.9 V_RHE to 13% at 1.2 V_RHE. On the flipside, faradic efficiency for CO₃²⁻ increased from 8.3% at 0.9 V_RHE to 41% at 1.2 V_RHE.

[0017]Further control experiment under open circuit potential (OCP) conditions, i.e., without an electrochemical bias, did not reveal any products via the 1H NMR analysis, indicating that the oxidation products detected (HCOO⁻+CO₂) were directly/indirectly results of an electrochemical reaction. The CH₄ oxidation was also conducted without the addition of H₂O₂ in the OER potential window. FIG. 2D shows that at high anodic bias (≥1.8 V), CO₂ was the only CH₄ oxidation product detected (FE of 21.6% at 1.8 V_RHE). While this confirmed the possibility to oxidize CH₄ without the use of H₂O₂, it also revealed the undesirable overoxidation of CH₄ to CO₂ due to the high voltages. Upon stepping to a higher applied potential (2.6 V_RHE), the CO₂ FE dropped to 5.1% due to the limited availability of CH₄ in the electrolyte.

[0018]The harsh oxidizing conditions warranted stability testing of our CuFe/NiF catalyst. We confirmed the stability of our catalyst by chronoamperometry measurements at 0.9 V_RHE (FIG. 2E) whereby the drop in current density was due to H₂O₂ consumption and the addition of the same amount of H₂O₂ led the current to return to its initial value, while the HCOO⁻ faradaic efficiency remained steady at ˜42%. We summarized the electrochemical performance metrics of the CuFe/NiF catalyst in a radar chart (FIG. 2F), wherein we compared our results with previously reported literature. We demonstrated a current density of ˜32 mA cm⁻², at an applied potential of 0.9 V_RHE, total eCH₄OR faradaic efficiency of 50.7% and a liquid oxygenate selectivity of 100%. There are only a handful of reports, wherein faradaic efficiency for eCH₄OR was reported at very low current densities (μA cm⁻²) and/or high applied potentials (>1.4 V_RHE).

Catalyst Characteristics

[0019]X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was conducted to determine the crystallinity of the CuFe/NiF electrode. The XRD pattern (FIG. 2A) shows that three large diffraction peaks at 44°, 52° and 76° are due to the (111), (200) and (220) facets of the nickel scaffold, while the ones at 30°, 35° and 37° match those for the tetragonal CuFe₂O₄ (JCPDS: 34-0425). However, other diffraction peaks are also present which can be assigned to CuO and Fe₂O₃. A previous report by Inamdar et al. confirmed that the hydrothermally grown CuFe on nickel foam at 105° C. forms a bimetallic composite of crystalline Cu matrix incorporated with Fe.⁷ Our XRD data also suggests that our catalyst is a composite system of amorphous CuFe oxides and tetragonal CuFe₂O₄.

[0020]X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) was conducted to gain more understanding of the electronic and oxidation states of each element in the electrode. The XAS spectrum of the Fe L₃-edge presents two main peaks at 708 and 711 eV while the Fe L₂-edge shows peaks at 720 and 722 eV (FIG. 3B).⁹ The peak at ˜710 eV represents confirms the presence of both octahedral and tetrahedral sites of Fe^III as compared with the spectrum of Fe₂O₃ reference. The suppression of the peak at 708 eV is attributed to the contributions from Cu^I cations. The Cu L_3,2-edge spectrum of the CuFe/NiF coincide with the absorption spectrum of the CuO, which shows that copper presents mainly as Cu^II on the electrode (FIG. 3C). However, the peak at 935 eV also signifies the existence of Cu^I species.

[0021]Further, the chemical state of the CuFe/NiF electrode was studied by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The high-resolution spectrum of Fe 2p in FIG. 3E reveals two peaks at 721.4 and 710.75 eV which correspond to Fe 2p_1/2 and Fe 2p_3/2 and spin-orbit states, respectively.^10,11 This observation confirms the presence of the Fe^III state in the CuFe/NIF electrode. The Cu 2p spectrum in FIG. 3F shows two satellite shake-up peaks at 954.4 and 951.0 eV and two peaks at 932.6 and 931.2 eV, confirming that Cu has a combination of 1+ and 2+ oxidation states on the surface of CuFe/NiF electrode.^12,13 The core-level O 1s further confirms the presence of the metal oxides on the catalyst surface.

[0022]Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) images of the CuFe/NiF electrode illustrated the following characteristics. The synthesized CuFe consists of randomly interconnected compact nanoflakes covering the NiF substrate. Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy proved the existence of Fe, Cu and O in the CuFe/NiF electrode with an atomic ratio for Cu/Fe at 1.65. This observation confirms that the CuFe composite is Cu-rich even though an equimolar amount of Cu and Fe precursors were used during the hydrothermal synthesis. A high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) image of the CuFe/NIF electrode is shown in FIG. 3D. The lattice fringes with a distance of 2.4 Å is associated with the (311) facet of CuFe₂O₄ while the fringes with lattice distances of 2.1 Å and 1.8 Å correspond to the (111) and (200) facets of Fe and Cu, respectively.^7,14

Mechanistic Study of eCH₄OR

[0023]The control experiments as discussed earlier in FIG. 2A indicates that the eCH₄OR only occurred in presence of iron, while the synergistic use of H₂O₂ and copper helped in its selective partial oxidation to formate. To further gain insights into the mechanism, the eCH₄OR were conducted in an operando spectroelectrochemical setup which allowed to monitor changes in the absorption spectra as a function of applied voltage. The electrode was prepared by hydrothermally growing a thin layer of CuFe on fluorine-doped tin oxide (denoted as CuFe/FTO). At first, the experiment was performed under water oxidation reaction, without the addition of H₂O₂. The baseline was recorded under open circuit potential (OCP) conditions. The inset of FIG. 4B shows a broad integrated absorption (ΔAbs) band centred at 600 nm when the potential applied on the CuFe/FTO was held at 2.0 V_RHE. This peak can be assigned to the high-valent Fe^IV═O and is similar to those previously reported in the literature for the α-Fe₂O₃ on FTO.^6,15-17

[0024]Upon adding H₂O₂, the same peak can be observed at 1.4 V_RHE (˜ 600 mV lower overpotentials) with much higher intensity (FIG. 4B). Without the use of H₂O₂, this peak is only observable at much higher voltages (≥1.9 V_RHE). This observation shows that the formation of the high-valent Fe^IV═O species is obtained at lower overpotentials compared to the OER.

[0025]The mechanisms of C—H bond dissociation of CH₄ can be classified into two categories: dehydrogenation and deprotonation. The dehydrogenation mechanism is generally observed for strong oxidizing catalysts such as high-valent metal oxo species as in the Fe^IVv=O.²⁰ The mechanism occurs via the surface nucleophilic oxygens, i.e., electron saturated species (O²⁻), which act as H⁺ acceptors and abstract a hydrogen atom (·H) from CH₄. In contrast, the deprotonation mechanism usually occurs on metal complexes with low oxidation states metal centres and accessible H⁺ acceptors.²¹ In addition to the dehydrogenation and deprotonation mechanisms, CH₄ oxidation could go through the Fenton pathway in which the reaction is initiated by free radicals that are accompanied by a Fenton reagent, such as Fe^II which generates ·OH radicals. A DFT study by Szécsényi et al. have shown the existence of a combination of dehydrogenation, deprotonation, and Fenton pathways.²¹ The complexity of their reaction mechanism is due to the presence of multiple oxidation states of Fe. It has been found that Fe^II and Fe^III favour the deprotonation and Fenton pathways, while the Fe^IV═O would promote the dehydrogenation pathway.²⁰ Adopting electrochemical means assure steady generation of Fe^IV sites that can prevent unwanted competing reactions at the Fe^III sites to take place through the Fenton pathway.²⁰

[0026]These high valent Fe^IV species detected during in situ spectroelectrochemical measurements of FIG. 4B, have been reported to be active sites for OER in alkaline conditions, using operando XAS and Mössbauer spectroscopies.^22,23 An operando infrared spectroscopy study performed by Zandi and Hamann showed that the rate-limiting step for the water oxidation is the oxidation of Fe^III—OH to Fe^IV═O.²⁴

[0027]$\begin{array}{cc}{\mathrm{Fe}}^{\mathrm{III}}+H_{2}O\to {\mathrm{Fe}}^{\mathrm{III}}-OH+H^{+}& \left(1\right)\end{array}$$\begin{array}{cc}{\mathrm{Fe}}^{\mathrm{III}}-OH\to {\mathrm{Fe}}^{\mathrm{IV}}=O+H^{+}+e^{-}& \left(2\right)\end{array}$

[0028]Therefore, even without the use of H₂O₂, one can generate the high-valent metal oxo Fe^IV═O species, and in return dissociate the C—H bond. However, due to the use of high voltages, there will be a competitive OER, in addition to the high possibility of the produced oxygenates being overoxidized to CO₂. This supports what was observed during the electrochemical tests discussed in FIG. 2D. Based on our combined experimental and mechanistic study, we can propose the following mechanism for eCH₄OR using our CuFe/NiF electrode: The generation of high valent Fe^IV═O species is dependent on the availability of the reactive oxygen species whereby H₂O₂ would predominantly be oxidized on nickel to generate the reactive oxygen species of hydroperoxyl radicals (·OOH). The Fe^IV═O is then generated by radical addition as mentioned in Equation (4):

[0029]$\begin{array}{cc}{\mathrm{Fe}}^{\mathrm{III}}+H_{2}O\to {\mathrm{Fe}}^{\mathrm{III}}-OH+H^{+}& \left(3\right)\end{array}$$\begin{array}{cc}{\mathrm{Fe}}^{\mathrm{III}}-OH+•O\mathrm{OH}\to {\mathrm{Fe}}^{\mathrm{IV}}=O+O_2+H^{+}+2e^{-}& \left(4\right)\end{array}$

[0030]Hence, Fe^IV═O would easily be formed since H₂O₂ oxidation happens at low applied potential compared to H₂O oxidation. The copper centres will modulate the reaction environment and prevent the over-oxidation of the produced oxygenates to CO₂ by reducing the excess of radicals.

CONCLUSION

[0031]A route for selective partial oxidation of methane at ambient conditions is disclosed herein, which avoids unwanted overoxidation to CO₂. Operando potential-controlled spectroelectrochemistry showed that Fe^IV can be obtained with the help of reactive oxygen species generated via the partial electrooxidation of H₂O₂ at lower overpotentials. Cu is disclosed to have a crucial role in protecting the produced liquid oxygenates from overoxidation to CO₂. A trimetallic catalyst of CuFeNi is provided that is demonstrated to be capable of Faradaic efficiencies of ˜42% and liquid product selectivity of 100% at current densities of 32 mA cm⁻².

[0032]Although various embodiments of the invention are disclosed herein, many adaptations and modifications may be made within the scope of the invention in accordance with the common general knowledge of those skilled in this art. Such modifications include the substitution of known equivalents for any aspect of the invention in order to achieve the same result in substantially the same way. Numeric ranges are inclusive of the numbers defining the range. The word “comprising” is used herein as an open-ended term, substantially equivalent to the phrase “including, but not limited to”, and the word “comprises” has a corresponding meaning. As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a thing” includes more than one such thing.

[0033]Citation of references herein is not an admission that such references are prior art to the present invention. Any priority document(s) and all publications, including but not limited to patents and patent applications, cited in this specification are incorporated herein by reference. All documents cited or referenced in herein cited documents, together with any manufacturer's instructions, descriptions, product specifications, and product sheets for any products mentioned herein or in any document incorporated by reference herein, are hereby incorporated herein by reference, and may be employed in the practice of the invention. More specifically, all referenced documents are incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference herein and as though fully set forth herein. The invention includes all embodiments and variations substantially as hereinbefore described and with reference to the examples and drawings.

REFERENCES